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409-The Dividend Drill
  In the last lesson, we learned about how dividends can establish a firm
  intrinsic value for a stock and act as a check on management's
  capital-allocation practices. In this lesson, we'll focus in more detail on
  how to indentify high-quality stocks with good total return prospects.
  
  Breaking total return into current yield and expected dividend growth, we
  should also sort the growth potential into two buckets--growth in the
  company's core business (assuming it's profitable growth, that is, or all bets
  are off) and the growth funded by any remaining free cash flows. We'll call
  this three-part process the Dividend Drill.
  
  
  1. Consider the Current Dividend
  
  If we can establish that a stock's current dividend is sustainable long term,
  we can take the stock's current yield and, voila, one chunk of our total
  return is accounted for. Taking a dividend for granted means establishing
  long-term sustainability. Nothing lasts forever--just ask the shareholders of
  once-venerable Goodyear Tire GT--although a few stocks, such as General
  Electric GE, have dividend records that come awfully close to immortality.
  
  What establishes a secure dividend? Look for manageable debt levels. Remember,
  bondholders and banks are ahead of stockholders in the pay line. Next look for
  a reasonable payout ratio, or dividends as a percentage of profits. A payout
  ratio less than 80% is a good rule of thumb. Finally, look for steady cash
  flows. Also demand an economic moat: No-moat companies tend to be cyclical
  (think autos and chemicals) and lack the pricing power to maintain earnings
  during the inevitable industry downturns.
  
  Coca-Cola KO is a good example. In mid-2005, the shares were changing hands at
  about $45 while paying a $1.10 annual dividend. At that time, the payout ratio
  was reasonable (52% over the previous 12 months), cash actually exceeded debt
  (no debt worries), and operating cash flows were consistent. Best of all, the
  firm's moat is very wide--Coke is arguably the most valuable brand name on
  earth, quite the achievement for what is, after all, caramel-colored sugar
  water.
  
  Coke's yield at that point was 2.4% ($1.10 / $45), giving us the first
  building block of prospective total return. And based on current earnings
  power of roughly $2.00 per share, we'll have $0.90 in retained earnings to
  fund dividend growth, which, as noted earlier, takes two forms.
  
  
  2. Assess the Company's Core Growth Potential
  
  
  One key to this analysis is understanding how much investment is required to
  fund this growth. Few areas of the market are bursting at the seams, but most
  companies and industries have at least some growth potential over time as the
  U.S. economy expands (figure 3%-4% per year plus inflation) and emerging
  markets open up. Inflation can be a tailwind, too--though taking price
  increases for granted with manufacturing-oriented firms is not necessarily a
  good idea. Fortunately for most mature businesses, supporting this baseline
  level of growth is relatively inexpensive, and therefore high return.
  
  Another and often simpler way to think about the cost of growth is to look at
  the company's free cash flow as a percent of net income. Since free cash flow
  includes the cost of capital investments that support growth initiatives, the
  difference between earnings and free cash gives us a sense of the cost of
  growth.
  
  For example, let's say free cash flow consistently totals about 60% of net
  income, while sales and profit growth run about 6%. This suggests that only
  40% of earnings will support this growth, leaving the other 60% of net income
  available for dividends, debt reduction, share buybacks, and other noncore
  investments.
  
  This core growth gives us the second chunk of our total return equation. For
  Coca-Cola, let's assume 5.2% growth in operating income over the next five
  years, and that Coke's growth will fall significantly below that figure
  thereafter. Assuming that management maintains the current payout ratio, the
  firm's total dividend payout should rise at a similar clip. So we bolt on this
  5.2% growth to our prospective total return, bringing our expectations
  (including the 2.4% yield noted above) to 7.6%.
  
  But we've got one more task before moving on to the third and final step--how
  much will achieving this 5.2% growth cost? One of the simplest angles is to
  take the growth we expect (5.2%) and divide that by a representative return on
  equity (a nifty 30.8% for Coke in the past five years). The resulting
  ratio--call it "R-cubed" for "required retention ratio"--is the proportion of
  earnings used to fund core growth. For Coke, the R3 is 17% of income, or $0.34
  per share.
  
  Aftertax return on invested capital is also worth a look. ROIC is actually the
  purest way of analyzing the incremental cost of growth; in our formula ROIC
  replaces return on equity in the calculation of R3. However, ROIC is more
  complex to use, and it leaves out the company's capital structure (mix of
  additional borrowings and retained earnings) that is reflected in ROE. If the
  capital structure is stable and returns on equity are consistent--Coke checks
  out here on both counts--ROE is a good metric to use.
  
  We'll stick with ROE R3, and estimate 5.2% annual growth will cost Coke $0.34
  per share. Over time the absolute number will grow, but the proportion (17%)
  will remain the same as long as its two factors--growth and return on
  equity--stay the same.
  
  Two thirds of the way through our analysis, we're up to a 7.6% return, and we
  still have $0.56 per share to spare ($2.00 in earnings less $1.10 for the
  dividend and $0.34 to fund core growth). So what's the final $0.56 per share
  worth?
  
  
  3. Evaluate the "Excess" Earnings
  
  After paying dividends and funding core growth, a company may have cash left
  over. It could opt to pay down debt, which would reduce interest expense and
  thus increase earnings. It might make an acquisition or some other investment,
  though the returns here could be spotty. Finally, it might opt to buy back
  stock.
  
  Whatever the company decides to do with these excess funds, we put the result
  into the growth bucket of our prospective total return. In other words, we
  assume that any cash not used for a dividend is employed to create earnings
  and dividend growth. To get a proxy for the added growth potential of
  remaining earnings, we'll make an additional assumption that the path of least
  resistance is a share buyback.
  
  This assumption is meant to err on the side of conservatism. The earnings
  yield (the inverse of P/E) on most stocks is generally much less than a
  company's return on equity, so we're not projecting much bang for this last
  slice of our buck. And acquisitions--returns of cash to someone else's
  shareholders--tend not to be priced for returns equal to existing investments.
  
  Share buybacks boost earnings growth--EPS grows not only when the numerator
  (profit) expands, but also when the denominator (shares outstanding) shrinks.
  Dividing the excess earnings into the stock price gives us an "excess earnings
  yield," the third component of our total return calculation. So if Coke uses
  the last $0.56 of per-share earnings to repurchase stock, it will be able to
  retire 1.2% of its shares in the first year ($0.56 divided by a $45 share
  price). That, in turn, gives next year's earnings per share a 1.2%
  tailwind--even if earnings are flat, fewer shares outstanding mean higher
  earnings per share.
  
  
  So What's It Worth?
  
  Totaling Coke's yield (2.4%), profit growth (5.2%), and excess earnings yield
  (1.2%) produces an expected total return of 8.8%. It's important to note that
  this total return projection is contingent on the current stock price--we can
  expect an 8.8% annual return from Coke only if we acquire the shares at $45.
  If we pay less, our total return will be higher, and vice versa.
  
  For example, let's say the market hits the proverbial banana peel, and Coke is
  offered at $35. Meanwhile our expectations (current earnings, dividend rate,
  future growth) haven't changed. Our core growth projection (5.2%) remains, but
  our two other factors are contingent on the stock price: At $35 the stock will
  yield 3.1% and our excess earnings quotient will rise to 1.6%. Our expected
  total return is now 9.9%, more than a full point higher. Conversely, if we
  wind up paying $55, our total return prospects are substantially reduced.
  Coke's yield will fall to 2%, the excess earnings quotient to 1.1%, and our
  expected return to 8.3%.
  
  This analysis essentially calculates fair value in reverse--instead of using a
  required rate of return to yield a fair price for the stock, we use the stock
  price to calculate the shares' total return. Coke's fair value is the price at
  which its total return is equal to the return we would require for any stock
  of similar risk characteristics. Morningstar's fair value estimate in mid-2005
  for Coke was $54, which was calculated using an 8.5% cost of equity--a return
  virtually identical to our total return projection if we use $54 as the
  stock's price.
  
  What's the "right" required rate of return? Unfortunately there's more art
  than science to this, but we have two observations. First, over a very long
  period of time (200 years), the market has managed to return something around
  10%. Lower-risk stocks would offer less, while higher-risk situations should
  require more. But most established, dividend-paying companies would fall in a
  range between 8% and 12%. Whatever you determine a "fair" return to be, demand
  more. This way you have a margin of safety between your assumptions and
  subsequent realities.
  
  
  The Bottom Line
  
  This analysis is not suited to every stock or situation. For one thing, even
  with the surge in the popularity of dividends in recent years, less than half
  of U.S. stocks pay a dividend. It's also not particularly well suited to
  deeply cyclical firms, whose earnings power and even dividend rates will vary
  widely from year to year. It's also not suited for emerging-growth stories.
  But for the ranks of relatively consistent, mature, moat-protected stocks--of
  which there are hundreds, if not thousands to pick from--we can use the
  dividend as a critical selection tool.